Publications
Guidelines for Non-Sexist Use of Language1
Virginia L. Warren, Chapman College
APA Committee on the Status of Women in the Profession
Forward
The following Guidelines were originally published in the Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association in February 1986 (Vol. 59, Number 3, pp. 471-482). They were prepared at the request of the Executive Committee of the Western Division (now called the Central Division) of the American Philosophical Association by the APA's National Committee on the Status of Women. Committee member Virginia Warren undertook to write the report, and after discussion by that Committee, it was submitted to the Executive Committees of the APA's three Divisions. All three Divisions passed resolutions encouraging members to keep the report in mind in preparing papers for divisional programs and asked the APA National Office to provide copies to members on request.
This reprinted report, slightly abridged by the author, is intended for free distribution to members of the Association, and members may wish to share it with colleagues in other disciplines as well. (For additional copies, write to the APA National Office, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716 or telephone (302) 831-1112.)
Publication of this report by the APA does not imply formal endorsement, either by the Divisions or by the National Board of Officers, of any specific or compulsory set of rules. Rather, it reflects an organizational conviction that philosophers should take special care to avoid giving needless and unintended offense. Members may find the suggestions in this report helpful in ensuring sensitivity to all the considerations that may influence philosophical conclusions.
Eric Hoffman
Executive Director
American Philosophical Association
For several reasons we, as philosophers, should be particularly sensitive to the issue of nonsexist language--that is, language whose "use creates, constitutes, promotes, or exploits an unfair or irrelevant distinction between the sexes" (Mary Vetterling-Braggin, 1981, p.3). First, our profession has long focused on language. Accordingly, we are attuned to the emotive force of words and to the ways in which language influences thought and behavior. Second, we pride ourselves on our willingness to question assumptions. Yet the uncritical use of sexist language may blind us to our having adopted a particular value-laden perspective. Such blindness may systematically distort our theories and interfere with the careers and lives of many of our colleagues and students, both female and male. Third, as scholars and teachers we pursue truth wherever it leads: to the reform of our ordinary concepts and beliefs and, if necessary, of our everyday language.
Our readers and listeners may have been receiving a message that we never intended to send. Rather than encouraging a superficial recasting of words, these guidelines are designed to foster a deeper appreciation of how easily bias slips into our thoughts and theories.
The Generic Use of 'Man' and 'He'
The generic use of 'man' and 'he' (and 'his', 'him', 'himself') is commonly considered gender-neutral. The case against the generic use of these terms does not rest on rare instances in which they refer ambiguously to 'male' or 'human being'. Rather, every occurrence of their generic use is problematic.
First, Janice Moulton persuasively argues, in "The Myth of the Neutral 'Man'" (in Vetterling-Braggin, 1981, pp. 100-115; revised from Vetterling-Braggin, et al, 1977, pp. 124-37), that 'he' and 'man' used generically are really not gender-neutral terms at all. ('Person' and 'human' are genuinely gender-neutral.) As evidence, Moulton offers many examples of statements in which 'man' and 'he' unambiguously refer to all humanity, rather than to males alone, yet are false, funny, or insulting. For example, "Some men are female" is irredeemably odd, while "Some human beings are female" is fine. Similarly, "Each applicant is to list the name of his husband or wife" is odd; and even using "his spouse" disquiets more than using "his or her spouse."
Second, empirical evidence supports Moulton's claim that regardless of the author's intention the generic 'man' is not interpreted gender neutrally.2 Casey Miller and Kate Swift (1976) cite a study in which college students chose pictures to illustrate chapters of a sociology textbook. Those with chapters entitled "Society," "Industrial Life," and "Political Behavior" tended to select pictures of both females and males. However, when the same chapters were named "Social Man," "Industrial Man," and "Political Man," students of both sexes tended to select pictures of males only. With some chapters the differences [between the two groups] reached magnitudes of 30 to 40 percent. The authors concluded, "This is rather convincing evidence that when you use the word man generically, people do tend to think male, and tend not to think female" (Miller and Swift, 1976, p. 21). This study also finds that the generic 'man' leaves out more than women: "As the image of capitalist, playboy, and hard hat are called forth by the word 'man', so is the other side of the coin called forth by 'behavior' or 'life'--women, children, minorities, dissent and protest" (Miller and Swift, 1976, p. 23).
Third, using the generic 'he' and 'man' is problematic because it often leads us to omit the distinctive elements of female experience and behavior. For example, a sentence beginning, "If a student is conscientious, he is probably a good . . . ," will likely be ended with "son"--even though "good son," "good daughter," and "good child" connote different things. If the sentence had begun, "A conscientious student is probably a good . . . ," a likely finale would be "son or daughter" or "child."
In sum, there are convincing reasons, both empirical and conceptual, for avoiding the generic 'he' and 'man' and for specifically including females. Hence, it is inadequate to state in an opening footnote that, for the remainder of the letter, article or book, 'he' shall stand for 'he or she' and 'man' for all humanity. What authors intend is not the issue. Good intentions not carried through are not good enough.
Addressing the Professional
Forms of address indicate attitudes about status and/or worth. Children often go by first names while calling adults by surname and title. Whenever males are referred to by title, use the appropriate title for female professionals (Ms., Dr., Professor), rather than their first names.
Sexual Stereotyping: Distortions and Silence
One way that sexual stereotypes enter philosophic discourse is through examples. Since philosophic examples are usually illustrative, it is often thought that their presuppositions need not be checked for sexist content. However, examples may manifest sexist bias: (a) through embodying explicit or implicit sexual stereotypes (e.g., by contrasting female beauty with male success, or by using this hackneyed example of complex question: "When did you stop beating your wife?"); (b) through adopting a male perspective (as when using the generic 'man' or 'he' leads one to say "his wife"); and (c) through silence--the absence of examples explicitly referring to women.
A second mode of entry for sexual stereotypes has been through the labeling of some roles as predominantly male or female. To assume that all lawyers or epistemologists are male deletes the female segment of the profession and reinforces the assumption that only males are "proper" professionals. Moreover, to assume that homemaking and child rearing tasks are the primary concern of all and only women excludes males from these roles, even as it ignores women's other concerns.
Finally, omitting women's distinctive interests and experience also perpetuates sexual stereotypes. The generic use of 'he' and 'man' are part of the more general problem of women's "invisibility" in philosophic discourse. Some empirical data on sexist language indicate that if women are not specifically included(e.g., through using females in examples, or the term "he or she"), even genuinely gender-neutral prose (e.g., using plural pronouns) tends to be heard as referring to males only.3
Summary of Guidelines for the Nonsexist Use of Language
When constructing examples and theories, remember to include those human activities, interests, and points of view which traditionally have been associated with females.
Eliminate the generic use of 'he' by:
Eliminate the generic use of 'man':
Eliminate sexism when addressing persons formally by:
Eliminate sexual stereotyping of roles by:
* Example 17 is from American Psychological Association (1977). Back
Notes
Bibliography
Bibliography Update
** The "Guidelines for Nonsexist Language in APA [American Psychological Association] Journals," have undergone a revision and name change. The current version is known as Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language and appears on pages 54 through 60 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th edition (1994). Single copies are no longer available. Back
*** The "Guidelines for Nonsexist Use of Language in NCTE [National Council of Teachers of English] Publication," have been revised as of 1985. They are still available from the NCTE at a cost of $.75 for members and $1.00 for non-members. Back